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Executive Orders Historical Archive
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Executive Order 6935 ⚖️✨ Zone 2: Zone of Twilight Constitutional Neutral (+0.02) 📜 Art. II §2: Commander-in-Chief Supervisory Authority

Executive Order 6935—Placing Certain Islands in the Pacific Ocean Under the Control and Jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy

Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin D. Roosevelt
•
Saturday, December 29, 1934
•
1 min read (228 words)

Executive Brief • At a Glance

⏱️ 1 min read (228 words) • ● In Effect
🎯 Primary Mandate

Wake Island located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 19°17'28" N. and longitude 166°34'42" E. from Greenwich, Kingman Reef located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 6°24'37" N. and longitude 162°22' W. from Greenwich, and Johnston and Sand Islands located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 16°44'32" N. and longitude 169°30'59" W. from Greenwich, together with the reefs surrounding all the aforesaid islands, as indicated upon the diagram hereto attached and made a part of this order, be, and they are hereby, reserved, set aside, and placed under the control and jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy for administrative purposes, subject, however, to the use of the said Johnston and Sand Islands by…

View all 1 directives ↓
⚖️ Constitutional Footing
⚖️✨ Zone 2: Zone of Twilight
Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence
📜 Art. II §2: Commander-in-Chief Supervisory Authority
Framers' constitutional debate ↓
🏛️ Scope & Affected Sectors
Armed Forces & Military Establishments Executive Departments & Federal Civil Servants
Inspect unabridged text ↓

Plain-English Translation & Framers' Constitutional Analysis

Early Statesman synthesis distilling legal jargon into practical meaning, statutory anchors, and structural constitutional impacts.

Signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on December 29, 1934, this order concerns Placing Certain Islands in the Pacific Ocean Under the Control and Jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy. Wake Island located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 19°17'28" N. and longitude 166°34'42" E. from Greenwich, Kingman Reef located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 6°24'37" N. and longitude 162°22' W. from Greenwich, and Johnston and Sand Islands located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 16°44'32" N. and longitude 169°30'59" W. from Greenwich, together with the reefs…

Constitutional Assessment: Scrutinized through Article II, Section 2, this action exercises the President's constitutional role as Commander in Chief. Early Framers recognized broad executive discretion in commanding military forces during conflict, provided it remains bounded by congressional declarations and respects civilian domestic courts.

Key Directives & Operative Actions

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Wake Island located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 19°17'28" N. and longitude 166°34'42" E. from Greenwich, Kingman Reef located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 6°24'37" N. and longitude 162°22' W. from Greenwich, and Johnston and Sand Islands located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 16°44'32" N. and longitude 169°30'59" W. from Greenwich, together with the reefs surrounding all the aforesaid islands, as indicated upon the diagram hereto attached and made a part of this order, be, and they are hereby, reserved, set aside, and placed under the control and jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy for administrative purposes, subject, however, to the use of the said Johnston and Sand Islands by…

Constitutional & Societal Entities Impacted

🏛️ Armed Forces & Military Establishments 🏛️ Executive Departments & Federal Civil Servants

Policy Areas & Topics

🏷️ National Security & Defense
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The Framers' Constitutional Council

1787 Prism

Evaluating this order against the constitutional debates of 1787 and the limits of Article II executive power.

⚖️✨ Zone 2 (Zone of Twilight)
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"When the President acts in absence of either a congressional grant or denial of authority, he can only rely upon his own independent powers, but there is a zone of twilight in which he and Congress may have concurrent authority."

— Justice Robert H. Jackson, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence
JM

James Madison

Separation of Powers & Legislative Primacy

"Power is of an encroaching nature, and it ought to be effectually restrained from passing the limits assigned to it." — Federalist No. 48 (1788)

Madison would view this order with watchful scrutiny. Operating in the 'Zone of Twilight' where Congress is silent, each such directive establishes an administrative precedent that steadily expands the executive perimeter at the expense of legislative primacy.

Madisonian Stance: Vigilant / Cautionary
AH

Alexander Hamilton

The Energetic Executive & Unified Command

"The direction of war implies the direction of the common strength; and the power of directing and employing the common strength must be under the direction of the single hand of the Executive." — Federalist No. 74 (1788)

Hamilton would forcefully champion executive discretion here. For foreign entanglements, commerce defense, and national security, deliberative assemblies are too slow and faction-ridden. A unified, energetic Executive exercising swift command is precisely what the Philadelphia Convention intended for national preservation.

Hamiltonian Stance: Strong Prerogative Support
GM

George Mason

Bill of Rights, Due Process & 10th Amendment

"The president will be surrounded by flatterers and sycophants... and the great powers of the executive will gradually absorb the liberties of the people." — Cato IV (Anti-Federalist, 1787)

The Anti-Federalist prism advises continuous democratic vigilance. Even routine administrative directives aggregate centralized federal power away from town halls and state assemblies toward a distant executive apparatus.

Anti-Federalist Stance: Eternal Vigilance Required
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Five Measurable "Constitutional Friction" Dimensions

An objective audit measuring potential separation-of-powers tension against the United States Constitution and established Supreme Court doctrine.

⚖️ Discretionary Twilight Zone
30 / 100 friction index
Dimension 1 • Art. I, §1 & §8

Legislative Encroachment & Purse

Low Friction

Operates within delegated statutory execution without modifying legislative appropriations or taxing powers.

Benchmark: Power of the purse, taxes/tariffs, and rule of law reserved to Congress.
Dimension 2 • Art. II, §1 & §3

Executive Scope & Faithfulness

Low Friction

Exercises standard supervisory executive authority to faithfully execute existing statutes.

Benchmark: Faithfully execute laws enacted by Congress vs. unilateral decree.
Dimension 3 • 10th Amendment

Federalism & State Sovereignty

Moderate Friction

Engages state and local partners in cooperative federalism programs.

Benchmark: Police powers and un-delegated responsibilities reserved to the States.
Dimension 4 • 5th & 14th Amendments

Due Process & Individual Rights

Low Friction

Focuses on internal governmental operations with no direct impairment of private rights or property.

Benchmark: Protection of private property, contracts, liberty, and procedural justice.
Dimension 5 • Separation of Powers

Youngstown Jacksonian Tier

Moderate Friction

The order relies on inherent Article II executive discretion, civil service management, or foreign diplomacy where Congress has neither expressly approved nor prohibited action.

Benchmark: Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence
⚖️ Audit Synthesis

This order operates within Justice Jackson’s Zone of Twilight, resting upon concurrent presidential authority or congressional silence.

Weighted composite: Art. I (25%), Art. II (25%), Federalism (15%), Due Process (15%), Youngstown (20%).
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How to read these dimensions: Executive power expands whenever an administration acts without explicit statutory authorization from Congress (Article I), touches upon police powers historically reserved to the states (Tenth Amendment), or limits private rights and property without judicial process. A low friction score indicates strict concordance with enacted law; a high friction score highlights orders testing the limits of presidential discretion.
Total Words
228
1,345 characters
Estimated Read Time
1 min
@ 200 words / min
Flesch-Kincaid
9.7
High School
Language Tone Score
+0.02
Constitutional Neutral
How is this scored?
Text size:

Official Archival Text

View Source Document

WAKE ISLAND, KINGMAN REEF, AND JOHNSTON AND SAND ISLANDS By virtue of and pursuant to the authority vested in me by the act of June 25, 1910, ch. 421, 36 Stat. 847, as amended by the act of August 24, 1912, ch. 369, 37 Stat. 497, and as President of the United States, it is ordered that Wake Island located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 19°17'28" N. and longitude 166°34'42" E. from Greenwich, Kingman Reef located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 6°24'37" N. and longitude 162°22' W. from Greenwich, and Johnston and Sand Islands located in the Pacific Ocean approximately in latitude 16°44'32" N. and longitude 169°30'59" W. from Greenwich, together with the reefs surrounding all the aforesaid islands, as indicated upon the diagram hereto attached and made a part of this order, be, and they are hereby, reserved, set aside, and placed under the control and jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy for administrative purposes, subject, however, to the use of the said Johnston and Sand Islands by the Department of Agriculture as a refuge and breeding ground for native birds as provided by Executive Order No. 4467 of June 29, 1926. This order shall continue in full force and effect unless and until revoked by the President or by act of Congress. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT The White House, December 29, 1934.

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Referenced By Later Executive Orders (1)

Subsequent presidents who cited, amended, continued, or revoked this directive in later orders.

References Executive Order 11048—Administration of Wake Island and Midway Island
John F. Kennedy • 1962-09-04
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Scholarly & Legal Citations 

Exec. Order No. 6935 (Dec. 29, 1934), https://executiveordersarchive.org/orders/app-executive-order-6935-placing-certain-islands-the-pacific-ocean-under-the-control-and.