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Executive Order 9626 ⚖️✨ Zone 2: Zone of Twilight Constitutional Neutral (+0.02) 📜 Art. II §2: Commander-in-Chief Supervisory Authority

Executive Order 9626—Appointment of the Member and Alternate Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal Established for the Trial and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis

Harry S Truman

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Monday, September 24, 1945

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1 min read (272 words)

Executive Brief • At a Glance

⏱️ 1 min read (272 words) • ● In Effect

🎯 Primary Mandate

In accordance with Article II of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal established by the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the trial and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis, pursuant to their agreement of August 8, 1945, I hereby appoint Francis Biddle of Pennsylvania to be the Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal and John J. Parker of North Carolina to be the Alternate Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal. 2.

View all 4 directives ↓

⚖️ Constitutional Footing

⚖️✨ Zone 2: Zone of Twilight

Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence

📜 Art. II §2: Commander-in-Chief Supervisory Authority

Framers' constitutional debate ↓

🏛️ Scope & Affected Sectors

Armed Forces & Military Establishments Merchants, Importers & Commercial Enterprises Sovereign State Governments & Localities

Inspect unabridged text ↓

Plain-English Translation & Framers' Constitutional Analysis

Early Statesman synthesis distilling legal jargon into practical meaning, statutory anchors, and structural constitutional impacts.

Signed by President Harry S Truman on September 24, 1945, this order concerns Appointment of the Member and Alternate Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal Established for the Trial and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis. In accordance with Article II of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal established by the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the trial and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis…

Constitutional Assessment: Scrutinized through Article II, Section 2, this action exercises the President's constitutional role as Commander in Chief. Early Framers recognized broad executive discretion in commanding military forces during conflict, provided it remains bounded by congressional declarations and respects civilian domestic courts.

Key Directives & Operative Actions

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The Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal shall receive such compensation and allowance for expenses as may be determined by the Secretary of State.

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The Alternate Member shall serve without compensation but shall receive such allowance for expenses as may be authorized by the Secretary of State. 3.

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The Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, the Attorney General, and the Secretary of the Navy are authorized to provide appropriate assistance to the Member and the Alternate Member in the performance of their duties hereunder and may assign or detail such personnel, including members of the armed forces, as may be requested for the purpose.

Constitutional & Societal Entities Impacted

🏛️ Armed Forces & Military Establishments 🏛️ Merchants, Importers & Commercial Enterprises 🏛️ Sovereign State Governments & Localities

Policy Areas & Topics

🏷️ National Security & Defense

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The Framers' Constitutional Council

1787 Prism

Evaluating this order against the constitutional debates of 1787 and the limits of Article II executive power.

⚖️✨ Zone 2 (Zone of Twilight)

"When the President acts in absence of either a congressional grant or denial of authority, he can only rely upon his own independent powers, but there is a zone of twilight in which he and Congress may have concurrent authority."

— Justice Robert H. Jackson, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence

James Madison

Separation of Powers & Legislative Primacy

"Power is of an encroaching nature, and it ought to be effectually restrained from passing the limits assigned to it." — Federalist No. 48 (1788)

Madison would view this order with watchful scrutiny. Operating in the 'Zone of Twilight' where Congress is silent, each such directive establishes an administrative precedent that steadily expands the executive perimeter at the expense of legislative primacy.

Madisonian Stance: Vigilant / Cautionary

Alexander Hamilton

The Energetic Executive & Unified Command

"The direction of war implies the direction of the common strength; and the power of directing and employing the common strength must be under the direction of the single hand of the Executive." — Federalist No. 74 (1788)

Hamilton would forcefully champion executive discretion here. For foreign entanglements, commerce defense, and national security, deliberative assemblies are too slow and faction-ridden. A unified, energetic Executive exercising swift command is precisely what the Philadelphia Convention intended for national preservation.

Hamiltonian Stance: Strong Prerogative Support

George Mason

Bill of Rights, Due Process & 10th Amendment

"The president will be surrounded by flatterers and sycophants... and the great powers of the executive will gradually absorb the liberties of the people." — Cato IV (Anti-Federalist, 1787)

The Anti-Federalist prism advises continuous democratic vigilance. Even routine administrative directives aggregate centralized federal power away from town halls and state assemblies toward a distant executive apparatus.

Anti-Federalist Stance: Eternal Vigilance Required

📐

Five Measurable "Constitutional Friction" Dimensions

An objective audit measuring potential separation-of-powers tension against the United States Constitution and established Supreme Court doctrine.

⚖️ Discretionary Twilight Zone

53 / 100 friction index

Dimension 1 • Art. I, §1 & §8

Legislative Encroachment & Purse

High Friction

Touches upon core congressional prerogatives: raises appropriations reallocation, tariff imposition, or statutory preemption questions.

Benchmark: Power of the purse, taxes/tariffs, and rule of law reserved to Congress.

Dimension 2 • Art. II, §1 & §3

Executive Scope & Faithfulness

Low Friction

Exercises standard supervisory executive authority to faithfully execute existing statutes.

Benchmark: Faithfully execute laws enacted by Congress vs. unilateral decree.

Dimension 3 • 10th Amendment

Federalism & State Sovereignty

High Friction

Creates friction with the Tenth Amendment by conditioning state grants, mandating local compliance, or preempting state police powers.

Benchmark: Police powers and un-delegated responsibilities reserved to the States.

Dimension 4 • 5th & 14th Amendments

Due Process & Individual Rights

Low Friction

Focuses on internal governmental operations with no direct impairment of private rights or property.

Benchmark: Protection of private property, contracts, liberty, and procedural justice.

Dimension 5 • Separation of Powers

Youngstown Jacksonian Tier

Moderate Friction

The order relies on inherent Article II executive discretion, civil service management, or foreign diplomacy where Congress has neither expressly approved nor prohibited action.

Benchmark: Concurrent Authority / Congressional Silence

⚖️ Audit Synthesis

This order operates within Justice Jackson’s Zone of Twilight, resting upon concurrent presidential authority or congressional silence.

Weighted composite: Art. I (25%), Art. II (25%), Federalism (15%), Due Process (15%), Youngstown (20%).

ℹ️

How to read these dimensions: Executive power expands whenever an administration acts without explicit statutory authorization from Congress (Article I), touches upon police powers historically reserved to the states (Tenth Amendment), or limits private rights and property without judicial process. A low friction score indicates strict concordance with enacted law; a high friction score highlights orders testing the limits of presidential discretion.

Total Words

272

1,648 characters

Estimated Read Time

1 min

@ 200 words / min

Flesch-Kincaid

20.4

Post-Graduate Legal

Language Tone Score

+0.02

Constitutional Neutral

How is this scored?

Text size:

Official Archival Text

View Source Document

By virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and statutes of the United States, as President of the United States and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, it is ordered as follows: 1. In accordance with Article II of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal established by the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the trial and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis, pursuant to their agreement of August 8, 1945, I hereby appoint Francis Biddle of Pennsylvania to be the Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal and John J. Parker of North Carolina to be the Alternate Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal. 2. The Member for the United States of the International Military Tribunal shall receive such compensation and allowance for expenses as may be determined by the Secretary of State. The Alternate Member shall serve without compensation but shall receive such allowance for expenses as may be authorized by the Secretary of State. 3. The Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, the Attorney General, and the Secretary of the Navy are authorized to provide appropriate assistance to the Member and the Alternate Member in the performance of their duties hereunder and may assign or detail such personnel, including members of the armed forces, as may be requested for the purpose. HARRY S. TRUMAN

THE WHITE HOUSE, #signature

September 24, 1945

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Scholarly & Legal Citations

Exec. Order No. 9626 (Sept. 24, 1945), https://executiveordersarchive.org/orders/app-executive-order-9626-appointment-the-member-and-alternate-member-for-the-united-states-the.